Current And Traditional Approaches To Motivation Business Essay

Current And Traditional Approaches To Motivation Business Essay In this dissertation paper I am going to provide a definition of motivation, describe and explain the differences between current and traditional approaches to motivation and identify and describe all motivation theories including content, process and reinforcement theories. I am going to explore the way motivation influences performance and explore ways in which managers can create a sense of meaning and importance for employees within their working environment. ACKNOWLEGMENTS In this paragraph I have the need to express my deepest gratitude to all the people that in one way or another contributed in the gathering of information and successful completing of this dissertation paper. First of all I would like to thank my tutor please state the name of your tutor, whose constant advising and guiding has offered me wealth of knowledge and support throughout my years of study. I would also like to thank my internship and at the time work supervisor, for showing me that theory can be put into practice and even though there might be difficulties in applying academic theories, results compensate for all the effort that is put in these actions. Last but not least I would like to thank my parents that offered me the opportunity to continue my studies at this academic level and have supported my efforts, both morally and financially, throughout all my years of study. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION Motivation is not a new managerial or leaders tool. It has been used for years and therefore a number of motivation theories exist, current and traditional ones. However applying motivational theories in practice makes us come across difficulties that have to do with each individual employee. Personality, needs and goals are factors to take under consideration before applying any motivational theory to a group of employees in order to make sure that positive results with derive from this effort. Daily change makes its appearance due to either market switches or technological achievements. Every industry faces changes and in most cases senior employees become outdate and reduce their productivity. Younger and more energetic employees become their managers, leaving them with no other personal goal rather than to wait for their retirement. So companies have come to a point where, what used to be once the most productive part of their manpower stop producing. Even if the new employees fill the gap of the reduced production (or sales) the company still is at loss and that has to be corrected. During this effort to produce a realistic and actual solution to this problem, I came across the strongest limitation I could ever encounter. Motivation, as well as all the factors it involves cannot be observed directly. All theories and their evaluation derive from the final outcome of a persons actions. However our observation of that result makes the steps followed previously seem rational and make sense. But it is not until the final result is measured that we actually know if the method used was the correct one or the most efficient one. So, in order to provide a solution I am going to present the data collected from my research and attempt an analysis that will offer a number of proposed solutions. I can not claim that this paper includes new motivational theories and concepts. However, I believe that it depicts, analyzes and offers solutions to a major problem of out time. The motivation Concept Motivation refers to the forces either within or external to a person that arouse enthusiasm and persistence to pursue a certain course of action. Richard L. Daft, 2006. Every day, from the very morning we wake up, we are involved into actions. We go to school, or to work, we have a certain behavior, but it is very rare for as to question the reason behind, us liking some activities more than others. For instance why do we enjoy one class more, or certain projects at work bring out the best of us. However our behavior is always motivated by something. The following table will help us indentify what hides behind our behavior. Model of Motivation. Source Modified from Games H. Donnely, James L. Gibson, and john M. Ivancevich, Fundamentals of Managemnet, 3rd edition, p. 185, 1978, by Business Publications, Inc. The needs we feel depend on our recent activity. For example, some one who is attenting a dinner event and has just eaten, may not feel hungry but yet wishes to communicate and entertain. On the other hand someone who is just returning from work and had no meal during the day, is hungry and probably has no mood for social interraction until he/ she eats. So, what we want (our goals) depends on our approaches to satisfying our needs. Let us not forget that the approach to satisfying ones need may seem logical to the person involved, but strange to someone who has other needs to fulfill. The next step is to follow a certain behavior that will lead to reaching our goals. This effort might tow different outcomes. One is the goals achievement which gives feedback that the behavior used to satisfy the needs is succesful. However a continious effort with no success will bring frustration, in which case the person involved may either try a new constructive behavior (actually involves new search behavior, goal indentification and goal-directed behavior). If again numerous efforts do not succeed, psychological defense is put to use, meaning that the person involved avoids thinking and feeling of the need even though it is not fully or at all fulfilled. When a goal is achieved a person received a sort of reward, that indicate that the behavior followed was the appropriate one and is to be used again in the future. There are two types of rewards. The instrinsic reward, which derives within the person involved and has do more with the sense of self fulfillment. And the extrinsic reward, which is given by a third person a supervisor or manager and could be a promotion, or bonus. Both types of rewards are important for an employee. Successful managers help their employees reach their intrinsic reward, while offering them extrinsic rewards too. It has been observed that the most innovating and high performance employees are the ones that find reward in the work itself. It is only natural to conclude, enen though studies have also proven it so, that employee motivaton leads to high performance nad increases productivity and profits. motivation approaches There are four motivation approaches and the managers form the way they use motivation and rewards according the motivation approach they choose to follow. The Traditional Approach Frederic W. Taylor was the first who studied employee motivation in order to increase their work efficiency. The rewards of this approach are only financial. The employee is paid more according the to quality and quantity of the work produced. The Human Relations Approach The human resource approach takes a step further that the traditional approach. For the first time employees were studied as people and managers tried to provide rewards that covered social needs as well, which seemed more important that economic rewards. The Human Resource Approach This approach brings the two previous approached to a new level. This theory actually identifies employees as complex human beings that can be motivated in more than one way. According to the human resource approach, working a vital activity for every person. This is the basis of the contemporary approach. The Contemporary Approach Three types of theories dominate the contemporary approach. The content theories point out the employees needs and help managers identify them and fulfill them in the working environment. Process theories are focused on the behavior the employees embrace in order to reach rewards within the work place. The third and final are the reinforcement theories that focus on how employees are going to be trained into a certain type of behavior, within their working environment that will lead them to the desired result and thus the reward as well. Content theories on motivation Understanding what motivates employees is a key aspect of management and can assist in achieving high performance standards and organizational development. Content theories seek to identify what people need at work and additionally how they try to meet these needs. Managers need to understand the variety of needs employees are trying to fulfill and design work in such way as to help them satisfy these needs but at the same time reach organizational goals as well. So, this theory focuses on the needs that drive employees. People have all sorts of needs, at one time or another, from basic needs such as food and clothing to achievement and money rewards. Content theories help identify the needs that act as motivators and make people adopt behaviors that will lead them to fulfill these needs. So, all management has to do is to design jobs that will meet theses needs and promote desired work behaviors. The Hierarchy of Needs Theory Developed by Abraham Maslow, the hierarchy of needs theory may be the most famous theories and identifies that people have multiple needs which are put in hierarchical order. According to Maslow human needs form a pyramid, at the base of the pyramid are most basic human needs, also knows are physiological needs. They involve eating food, drinking water, breathing air. Within a working environment these needs represent salary to ensure survival as well working condition up to sufficient heat and air supply. Just above are the safety needs that represent the needs for a safe and secure environment. Following are the belongingness needs and they include the need of feeling part of a group, having good relations with other co workers and generally being accepted as a team member. Then come the esteem needs that mainly have to do with receiving recognition and positive attention, being appreciated and motivated by receiving praise, promotion and more responsibilities. Last come the self actualization needs that represent the need for self fulfillment. Within an organization self actualization is reached when employees are provided with opportunities for growth, creativity and training. According to Maslow the needs at the base of the pyramid must be met, before the one at the top are satisfied. Once one level of needs is satisfied then the person seeks to fulfill the next in hierarchy level of needs. The ERG Theory The ERG theory is a modification of the needs hierarchy that proposes three categories of need: existence, relatedness and growth. (Richard L. Daft, 2006). This theory was developed by Clayton Alderfer that actually modified Maslows theory. He simplified the needs and set the tree below categories: Existence needs, are the needs of physical well being that include food, water, air, heat, safety and so on. Relatedness needs, are the needs to have relationship with others. Growth needs, are needs that focus mainly on a persons development. This theory also suggest that when an employee fails to fulfill a higher level need, as the need of personal growth, then turns back and focuses on an already fulfilled need, as the need to earn more money. This theory explains why companies are working so hard in order to find ways to show recognition and encourage participation of employees in decision making. The reason is that employees that contribute ideas and feel appreciated feel valued, loyal and motivated. It is also important to note that when an employees idea is actually implemented the positive affect of motivation influences not only the employee involved but the entire work force, that sees hope for their efforts to be recognized and appreciated as well. It is also important to note, at this point that other actions such as offering job flexibility enhance motivation within organizations. Such actions include telecommunicating, flexible hours, and job sharing, enables employees to have more control over their work and responsibility for its organization. Job flexibility is considered an important benefit that makes employees more committed to the company they work for. Additionally companies have tried to make employees feel that there is connectivity between their personal and working life, by trying to add the element of fun in the workplace, making less strict rules and making work something more pleasant and personal. The Two-Factor Theory The two-factor theory was developed by Frederic Herzberg, who after interviewing large number of employees concluded that there are two factors that influence work motivation. The first set of factor is also called hygiene factors. Are the factors that make an employee not satisfied, but not dissatisfied with the working environment. They include work condition, payment and interpersonal relationships. When the hygiene factors are low then the employee is more likely to be dissatisfied. It is important to note that good hygiene factors only remove dissatisfaction, but do not provoke satisfaction. The second set of factors are called motivators. They are mainly focused on the higher level of needs, such as recognition, achievement, personal growth and responsibility. The absence of motivators causes, with good hygiene factors cause neutral feeling towards work. The conclusion of this theory is very interesting. It shows that dissatisfaction and satisfaction for ones work come from totally different factors. So managers need to correctly focus their efforts towards both factors in order to have not only, not dissatisfied employees, but also motivated ones that will increase their performance. Acquired Needs Theory According to David McClelland, some needs people acquire during their lifetime. These needs are not at the basis of Maslows pyramid of needs and people are not born with them, but rather learn to have them. More specifically these needs are: The need for Achievement. The need for Affiliation The need for Power Life experiences are responsible for the acquisition of such needs. After 20 years of study McClelland concluded that people with high needs for achievement are mainly entrepreneurs, while those with high need of affiliation make good coordinators and establish good working relationships. Those with high need of power are most probably the ones to choose paths that will lead them to managerial positions. PRocess theories on motivation Process theories of motivation seek to understand the complex relationship between the many variable that motivation consists of. Managers need to understand what initiates behavior, and how it is directed and sustained. There are two main process theories. The equity and the expectancy theory. Equity Theory The equity theory is the process theory that focuses on individuals perceptions of how fairly they are treated relative to others (Richard l Daft, 2006). J. Stacy Adams, who developed the theory, claims that people are motivated by seeking social equity. If people believe that they are compensated as much as others for a relative equal contribution, then they would feel that they are fairly treated. In order for people to measure equity they use a ration of inputs (that are effort, education, experience and ability) to outputs (that are recognition, payment, promotions and benefits). Equity is achieved when ones persons ration equals anothers persons ratio. Within a working environment that inequity is perceived there is tension and a strive to bring equity back. The methods most commonly used to correct inequity are: Change inputs. For example a person that is overpaid may increase effort while a personal that is underpaid may decrease it. Change outcomes. For example an employee or a union may request a raise or better working conditions in order to equal input with output, relatively to better paid employees. Distort perception In such cases, people artificially believe and make others believe that their job position is more important than it really is, or that someone elses benefits are not so important as they might sound. This brings a delusional balance. Leave the job. For example people that feel that there is no equity will seek another working environment that is more balanced. Expectancy Theory According to the expectancy theory, motivation depend on individuals expectations about their ability to perform tasks and receive desired rewards. It is concerned with the thinking process people use in order to be rewarded. Based on individual effort and performance it involves the following: Whether the effort that will be put into a task will result to the desired performance level. Whether the successful performance will bring the desired outcome. Whether the value of the outcome is highly valued by the employee as well. High expectancy and high valued outcome leads to high motivation, otherwise motivation level is low. So actually this model theory is not concerned with the needs people have and how they act as motivators. It focuses on they way employees think in order to achieve rewards. Since each employee is a personal with different personality, their goals may differ as well and seek to satisfy different needs. This personalization of needs brings implications for management. Since the goal of the management team is to help employees meet their own goals but at the same time meet the companys goals as well, managers need to make sure that personal abilities match the job demands and at the same time that each employee is given the time, equipment and support needed to reach the goals set. The Goal Setting Theory It has been observed that employees seem to be more motivated when specific targets are given to them to achieve. The goal needs to be specific, attainable and accepted by the employees. The last and one of the most important elements of his theory is feedback. Performance feedback is crucial in order to sustain desired work behavior, though motivation. According to Edwin Locke and Gary Latham, who came up with this theory, goal setting increases motivation because it helps employees target their energy and efforts towards one direction. Challenge is another strong motivator, when asked to achieve difficult goals, that drives employees into putting in more effort to reach their goal achievement. Reinforcement theories on motivation The reinforcement theory does not involve approaches according to the needs and ways of thinking of the employees. It is only based on the relationship between behavior and consequences. The law of affect is what rules over this theory. A behavior that is rewarded tends to be repeated when a behavior that is punished tends to be corrected. So a positive reinforcement, is a pleasant rewarding for an employees working behavior and may consist of praise, promotion, more responsibility, work flexibility, social recognition. This tool of reinforcement theory shows that non financial incentives have proven to be as powerful as the financial ones. Another tool is negative reinforcement, that mainly indicates that a negative consequences will stop once the desired behavior is adopted. Punishment is another tool that suggests that an undesirable working behavior suffers consequences, however this tools fails to point out the desired or correct behavior, since it provide only negative input to the employee. The last reinforcement tool is extinction, that involves the withdrawal of positive rewards such as praises, pay raises. Reinforcement Schedules There are five basic types of reinforcement schedules, according to which the timing and frequency of reinforcement have the desired impact on employees. Continuous reinforcement is one method, suggesting that every time the desired behavior occurs it is reinforced. This strategy is especially effective in the early stages of learning desired working behaviors. Partial reinforcement suggests that positive reinforcement occurs only after the repeating the desired behavior several times. Motivational ideas No doubt, we are going through some turbulent times. Organizations seek ways to increase performance and by hiring new, young and highly ambitious employees, that are highly motivated to reach new, increased sales and productivity goals. They are positioned as managers of senior employees with precious experience and know how. So from the one hand we have highly motivated young managers and on the other we have low motivated senior employees. What happens to them is that the seconds lose interest in their job and rather pass their time, until retirement. The loss for the organization is greater than suspected, since the under productive employees, apart from their own productivity, influence the productivity of their entire group or team. Their behavior derives from the lack of motivation. The new, younger and inexperienced employees are put to positions above the seniors, receiving the same or even more payment. This a clear case of inequity, that influences the performance of the once strongest performers are constantly under performing even though they know they still have a lot to offer. A smart manager should try to keep feelings of equity in balance in order to keep the entire workforce motivated. Empowerment Empowering people to meet higher needs is a very good way by which management can provide motivation. In our case of the senior workers empowerment would mean power sharing, and even if new and younger employees were put in managerial positions, authority could be shared with senior employees. This way, the managerial job description would be a little altered, however senior employees would not be hostile towards the junior managers and would try to work together with them as a team. This is also a way for the senior employees to put themselves on the test and check if they could, within the current market conditions, lead their team to successful results. These employees already know the can do a good job and so empowerment at this stage only releases a motivation that already exists. Employee empowerment involve four elements that need to be given to employees in order for them to be able and accomplish their job. Information. Employees receive all information about company performance. Access to the companys financial and operational information gives the feeling of power and importance to the employee. Knowledge. Training programs are put together, made accessible to all employees, making sure that everyone has the knowledge required to contribute to organizational performance but also fulfill the need of personal growth. Power. Employees have the power to make substantive decisions, influencing organization performance, within self directed work teams. Reward. Employees are rewarded based on the companies performance. This kind of reward inspires more team work and acts as a very powerful motivator. Giving Meaning to Work Another way to motivate employees is to help them identify intrinsic rewards from their own work. For example in the case of the senior employees, let them give talk to seminars for new management trainees and to speak and lead sessions at conferences on district managers, helping them fulfill high level esteem and self actualization needs. Mentoring relationships could also be allowed to help towards the same direction. Another way to give meaning to the work for the senior employees could be to put them in groups that keep close communication and make them compete on actual results. Using the above techniques and actions will help senior employees feel respected, valued, important and empowered within the company, shooting their motivation and thus their performance to the sky. conclusion Now that we have closely seen what motivation is and how it is applied it is time to answer the question of how does motivation actually affect performance. Traditional and contemporary motivation theories as analyzed before suggest that there is a strong link between motivation and performance. What we actually need to do is to understand the nature of motivation. An individual employee may question the motivation theory, by simply asking Why should I perform harder?. Is there concrete evidence that motivation is linked to performance? In order to answer this question we need to look to this issue from another perspective. Since motivation and the factors involved in it, cannot be directly observed and it is only the final outcome that can be evaluated, let us observe what happens to performance in the lack of any motivation activity. Taking under consideration the content theories of motivation there are clear hygiene factors, such as working conditions, payment and safety, that if not fulfilled will lead to extremely low performance. Accordingly factors such inequity or rare reinforcement also show a very low performance level. However it is very hard to expect employee behavior to follow a certain pattern and also hard to suggest to what extend a yearly or semi yearly appraisal will ensure that desired working behavior is achieved on a daily basis. The role of the manager nowadays is not to control the workforce but more to establish the environment in which the workforce will learn, contribute and grow. Their role also includes channeling employee motivation toward the accomplishment of organizational goals, by making the best out of each employees unique skills, talents, interests and needs.

Looming Economic Crisis in United States

On January 21st and 22nd 2008, world financial markets crashed amidst the fears of American economy slowly are gradually moving toward recession. The emerging markets world over corrected almost 20 to 30 percent while the developed financial markets of Europe and American corrected over 10-15 percent. At present the DOW is 20 percent below its July top a signal that financial markets are entering a bear phase. (Landler & Timmons 2008) The paper will try to shed light on what is looming large on American economy, what are the policy or market failures which are taking the economy into recession, How the present Bush plan of stimulus will impact the scenario in future and will it be good enough to bring the economy back on track. Main contributors to the slowdown of the economy American economy is hit by numerous factors at the same time – growth slowdown, increasing unemployment numbers, falling retail sales, increasing trade deficit, weakness of dollars, emergence of Euro, housing crisis and failure of financial markets. (Landler & Timmons 2008) Housing Market – The housing market has been slowing down for an year now and most presidential candidates are suggesting ways on how American economy can come out this mess. The slowdown in the housing market is due to high default rate on mortgages especially sub-prime mortgages. During the credit expansion time post first Bush tax cuts banks and financial institutions lowered their vigilance on credit rating and in quest to expand market end up giving housing mortgages to shady borrowers. Another reason why this happened was – money was easy to come and housing market was on uptrend so in case of failure of installment and foreclosure the banks and financial institutes were able to get the money back through increased price of the houses. But after the slowing down of housing markets real estate rates have fallen 5-10 percent in last year only and according to UBS it is expected go down by 15-20 percent more in coming year. Increasing National Debt – the present national debt is around 9 trillion dollars which accounts for almost 65 percent of the Gross Domestic Product. Such high level of national debt increases the interests on payments significantly and reduces the elbow space of the government in tinkering with the fiscal policy. In the past America able to finance its debt by weakening the dollar but now with emergence of Euro it has become increasing difficult to export the national debt to foreign institutions and countries which in past are happy to maintain huge dollar reserves. (Kjeldsen, 2002) Increasing Trade Deficit – The profitability of American companies have grown over the past half a decade but the trade deficit hasn’t come down. The main reason for it is off-shoring and outsourcing. American companies are making the most of low cost manufacturing and services in countries like China and India to boost their bottomline. Low level of saving rates – In response to the main reason for credit card default rate one women respondent on CNBC summed up the saving rate of Americans – â€Å"we all like to buy things, we all love to travel and we don’t want to wait for it†. This culture of plastic money spending today paying later has brought down saving rates to alarming levels and it can significantly hamper the investment in the economy. Increasing inequality among Americans – the last tax cuts provided immense benefits to the rich Americans and increased the income gap between the rich nation and poor nation. Hurricane Katrina exposed the underbelly of this growing inequality in the country and it will take years of corrective actions. Financial Markets crash – America is financial market sensitive country by that it means that the wealth effect among American can be reflected by the state of the financial markets as more than 80 percent of the population invest in the financial markets. This has let the consumer sentiments down which is resulting in lowering retail sales and subsequently lowering employment generation. (Landler & Timmons 2008) President Bush Stimulus Plan President Bush has passed the stimulus plan of 168 billion into law, the stimulus plan will ensure money in the hand of real consumers in short time which will help in keeping the economy afloat by not letting the demand go drastically down. In the long run along with the tax cuts and stimulus plan the economy will able to get new investments which can bolster production and employment opportunities. The stimulus package will start providing tax cuts after May and before that it provide a one time rebate of 600 dollars for the individual and 1200 for couple and an additional 300 dollar each for a child in the family.   (MSNBC, 2008) The stimulus plan may be a step in right direction but the challenges the economy is facing are fundamental one. With high oil prices and fears of inflation the tax cuts may end up fuelling the inflation in the economy resulting in more import of cheap products from countries like China which is maintaining fixed exchange rates. Conclusion At present the economy is looking down the barrel and there is a very slim chance that it will escape recession and more importantly a growth slowing down in next 2-3 years. America is fast graying and productivity going down with increasing health costs, the times seems to be certainly tough in future. The one ray of hope is creating of jobs by investing in new technologies which America is historically good at. References Kjeldsen-Kragh, Soeren. (2002)   International Economics. Copenhagen, , DNK: Copenhagen Business School Press, 2002. Mark Landler and Heather Timmons (2008) Stocks Plunge Worldwide on Fears of a U.S. Recession. Retrieved on 17th Feb from http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/21/business/22stox-web.html?_r=1&hp&oref=slogin MSNBC (2008) Bush signs stimulus package into law. Retrieved on 17th Feb from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/23143814 http://www.trb.org/publications/millennium/00138.pdf   

Viable System Model

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR III ASSIGNMENT â€Å"VIABLE SYSTEMS MODEL (VSM) AS APPLIED TO A MAJOR ORGANIZATION† Study of Viable Systems Model at ITC Ltd. Submitted by: Daksh Kumar Anand Uh11013 Introduction This paper is intended as study of the Viable System Model for better understanding. It deals with some of the basic concepts embodied in the model, the modeling process, and its use in practice in ITC Ltd. ITC’s transformation from cigarette to a conglomerate. Why we need Organizational Models We all interpret the world through models; these can be explicit, or tacit. For all managers in all organizations, their ability to manage a situation or organization effectively is in direct proportion to the accuracy and relevance of the models they are using to understand it. By far the most common organizational model in use in management today is still the hierarchical model though it has various disadvantages. What it doesn’t model is any of the more fundamental things about the organization: what it is, what it does, how it does it, its processes, formal and informal structures, communications and information transfers, or decision making. The VSM (Viable Systems Model) offers a more sophisticated alternative, one that can be used both for diagnosing existing organizations, and for designing new ones. The Viable Systems Model: The  viable systems model or  VSM  is a  model  of the organizational structure of any viable or  autonomous  system. A viable system is any system organized in such a way as to meet the demands of surviving in the changing environment. One of the prime features of systems that survive is that they are adaptable. The VSM expresses a model for a viable system, which is an bstracted  cybernetic (regulation theory) description that is applicable to any organization that is a viable system and capable of autonomy. A viable system is composed of five interacting subsystems which may be mapped onto aspects of organizational structure. In broad terms Systems 1–3  are concerned with the ‘here and now' of the organization's operations, System 4 is concerned with the ‘t here and then' – strategical responses to the effects of external, environmental and future demands on the organization. System 5 is concerned with balancing the ‘here and now' and the ‘there and then' to give policy directives which maintain the organization as a viable entity. * System 1 (Operations)  in a viable system contains several primary activities. Each System 1 primary activity is itself a viable system due to the recursive nature of systems as described above. These are concerned with performing a function that implements at least part of the key transformation of the organization. System 2 (Coordination)  represents the information channels and bodies that allow the primary activities in System 1 to communicate between each other and which allow System 3 to monitor and co-ordinate the activities within System 1. * System 3 (Operations Planning ; Control)  represents the structures and controls that are put into place to establish the rules, resources, rights and responsibilities of System 1 and to provide an interface with Systems 4/5. System 4  (Development Research an d marketing) – The bodies that make up System 4 are responsible for looking outwards to the environment to monitor how the organization needs to adapt to remain viable. * System 5 (Decisions to maintain identity) –  is responsible for policy decisions within the organization as a whole to balance demands from different parts of the organization and steer the organization as a whole. According to the above descriptions, these systems can be organized into three groups reflecting the three management perspectives: * Operational Management (Systems 1,2,3) Strategic Management (System 4) * Normative Management (System 5) VIABLE SYSTEMS MODEL AT ITC LIMITED ITC was incorporated on August 24, 1910 under the name Imperial Tobacco Company of India Limited. In recognition of the Company's multi-business portfolio encompassing a wide range of businesses – Cigarettes & Tobacco, Hotels, Information Technology, Packaging, Paperboards & Specialty Papers, Agri-business, Food s, Lifestyle Retailing, Education & Stationery and Personal Care – the full stops in the Company's name were removed effective September 18, 2001. The Company now stands rechristened ‘ITC Limited'. The success of ITC lies in the fact that it has been able to adapt to the changing environment and market needs through searching more and more viable options for sustainable growth. Let us apply the VSM model in systematic fashion: * System 1 (Operations)  in a viable system contains several primary activities. Though the first six decades of the Company's existence were primarily devoted to the growth and consolidation of the  Cigarettes and Leaf Tobacco businesses, the Seventies witnessed the beginnings of a corporate transformation that ushered in momentous changes in the life of the Company. It entered into the chosen portfolio of FMCG, Hotels, Paper, Paperboards & Packaging, Agro Business and Information Technology. These were chosen on the basis of internal capabilities, the emerging opportunities in these areas and confidence that ITC would be able to achieve leadership positions in these business segments. * System 2 (Coordination)  ITC has a diverse portfolio of product offerings and proper coordination between them is necessary and it does take place even at the very basic level. E. g. ne of the primary products in its portfolio — Aashirvaad Atta [wheat flour] — is today a leader in its segment within a very short time since its launch. Its success is an example of the synergies that ITC derives from the diversity of its businesses. ITC's pioneering rural initiative, the e-Choupal network, enables cost effective sourcing of wheat but, more importantly, lends a competitive strength given the traceability of the commodity through identity-preserved pr ocurement. This enables customized blending, which again is a strength honed from the practice of tobacco lending over the years, to support local tastes and preferences. This is a perfect example of how the coordination takes place in ITC Ltd. * System 3 (Operations Planning ; Control) Flowing from the philosophy and core principles, Corporate Governance in ITC takes place at three interlinked levels, namely – * Strategic supervision by the Board of Directors * Strategic management by the Corporate Management Committee * Executive management by the Divisional Chief Executive assisted by the Divisional Management Committee. It is ITC's belief that the right balance between freedom of management and accountability to shareholders can be achieved by segregating strategic supervision from strategic and executive management. This 3-tier structure ensures that a. Strategic supervision (on behalf of the shareholders), being free from involvement in the task of strategic management of the Company, can be conducted by the Board with objectivity, thereby sharpening accountability of management. b. Strategic management of the Company, uncluttered by the day-to-day tasks of executive management, remains focused and energised; and c. Executive management of the divisional business, free from collective strategic responsibilities for ITC as a whole, gets focused on enhancing the quality, efficiency and effectiveness of its business. ITC also benchmark the health of each business comprehensively across the criteria of Market Standing, Profitability and Internal Vitality. * System 4  (Development Research and marketing) – ITC is committed to delivering world-class products and services. This requires a clear focus on continuously striving to create a higher value to customers by achieving excellence in all Company's operations. ITC always look out to know the customer demands and needs and work upon them. e. g. ITC's hotels business and its master chefs interact with millions of consumers throughout the year and are able to understand the nuances of regional and local tastes that delight the consumer palette. This knowledge is utilized by the foods business to deliver a superior and differentiated product. System 5 (Decisions to maintain identity) –  ITC has developed core values in order to bring out the balance between demands of the organization as well as the demands of the customers. ITC's Core Values are aimed at developing a customer-focused, high-performance organization which creates value for all its stakeholders and these are: * Trusteeship * Customer Focus * Respect for People * Excellence * Innovation * Nation Orientation. It is clear from the above discussion that ITC follows the Viable Systems Model up to a great extent which is a reason for its sustenance in dynamic environment.

Implementation Of Any / All Drug Screens Essay - 942 Words

Progress Review- Joshua Harris Please list outcomes of any/all drug screens. Please include the date, type, results, and substance (if applicable) Not applicable Progress in treatment: (please choose either moderate-significant-slight improvement, or moderate-significant-slight deterioration, or no change) ISSUE PROGRESS Aggression Slight Deterioration. The client is starting to display aggressive behaviors towards his family when he is unable to get what he wants. The behaviors the client exhibits are tantrums of hitting, screaming, and yelling at his sisters. His negative interaction towards his mother consists of refusing to listen to her redirections and kicking a wall as he walks to another room. Self- Injurious Behaviors/Suicidal Slight Deterioration. The client had one episode on 11/2/2016, where he banged his head against a wall when his mother redirected him to take a shower prior to going to the hospital. The client has not express suicidal thoughts, but is starting to be unable to control his emotions. Oppositional- Defiant Behaviors Slight Deterioration. . The client has been displaying negative interactions towards his mother for the past couple of weeks. These behaviors seemed to increase when the client was unable to receive a wanted object from his mother, even after the client was provided therapeutic tools of understanding the differences between needs and wants. Please include any/all changes orShow MoreRelatedPrescription Drug Abuse Among Adolescents1628 Words   |  7 PagesNursing Informatics Quality Improvement Prescription Drug Abuse Among Adolescents Have you ever heard these words –hillbilly H, a-minus, red birds, Vitamin R, and roses? There is no question that we have heard some of these words. Yet, what is unexpected is they are all code words used by teens for prescription drugs (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2016). 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The True Experience Of War - 1668 Words

In high school, very few teachers know of the true experience of war. When learning about war in class, most teachers take their information right from the textbook. I was lucky to have the experience of having a teacher who knew the actual effects of war on a person when I took a European history class with Marilyn Lubarsky. She spoke a great deal about her father’s experience with war and stories she had heard from former students who went on to serve in the military. Upon hearing that I needed to interview someone with a direct experience with war, Marilyn seemed to be the perfect candidate to interview. As with any story, it was best for me to begin by asking her about her father, Robert Lubarsky’s beginnings in the military. Robert first enlisted in the military the day after the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7th, 1941. The lines for enlistment, that stretched for blocks of New York City, were filled with the young children of immigrants. To hear that there we re lines of young boys my age willing to put their lives on the line for their country really shocked me. It made me think to myself, would I be willing to put my life on the line in a similar situation? It made me extremely thankful and embarrassed for myself. I was thankful that there has not been a situation where me joining the army was necessary but I was embarrassed because I never realized how unthankful I was for the life I lived. Sitting in an air-conditioned library bares no comparison to theShow MoreRelatedIntrospection in How to Tell a True War Story, and Into the Wild1494 Words   |  6 PagesTell a True War Story† Tim O’Brien expresses his thoughts about the true war story and how the war story is changed according to the person who tells it. 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My Philosophy on Education Essay - 1172 Words

All human societies, past and present, have had an interest in education; and many have claimed that teaching is the second oldest profession. While not all societies channel sufficient resources into support for educational activities and institutions, all at the very least acknowledge their centrality; and for good reasons. Teaching, in my opinion is the first profession period. Teaching will always and forever be used until the end of time. We know that everyone is born unknowing about education, norms, and is illiterate; we do not know about the community or society as a whole. That is where teachers come in to play. Things like this must be taught, we are not born with knowledge. Professional teachers learn their crafts with†¦show more content†¦I’m sure you have heard of the saying â€Å"train a child in the way that they should go, and when they are older they will not depart from it.† It starts early in life and that’s what makes a younger child grow and mature to productive citizens in the word. It is very essential to the early childhood educators to establish and build community relationships. This helps promote better resources as well as childcare. The most important relationship you can have is with the parents. The parents have the most control and influence over the child when they are at home. If you can get the parents involved, as well as the community by getting support is important in all social groups. Building trust with the parents is the most important way you can both work together for the betterment of the child. Promoting early child development and learning is important because it essential to cognit ive, social, emotional and physical growth of the child. Jean Piaget was one of the most influential researchers in the area of developmental psychology. Piaget’s was interested in how children think; which helped him to identify his stages of cognitive development. The approach that is most fitting for the style of teaching I would provide would be Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and Realism theory. There are four stages to Jean Piaget’s Cognitive development, and they are Sensorimotor, Pre-operational, concrete operational and formalShow MoreRelatedMy Philosophy On The Philosophy Of Education844 Words   |  4 PagesIn mathematics, as in life, everything must be brought to the simplest of terms. I base my teaching philosophy on the foundation that every student is capable of learning mathematics. I will strive, as a teacher, to ensure that my students are able to have a strong foundation of mathematical skills when they leave my classroom. Som e students believe that they are not mathematically gifted; therefore, incapable of learning mathematics. I believe to the contrary, all students with motivation, sustainedRead MoreMy Philosophy On Philosophy Of Education852 Words   |  4 PagesMy Philosophy of Education My philosophy of education is founded on a belief that all students have a desire to learn and to feel accepted. Learning takes place when students are able to have their specific needs meet inside the classroom, to feel accepted in the environment, and find the learning to be meaningful. I believe that before learning can take place a proper educational environment must be present inside the classroom. In order to make any classroom work I believe you need meet three criteriaRead MoreMy Philosophy Of Education As A Education864 Words   |  4 Pagesdifferent philosophy of education, and what purpose education serves in a child’s life. The five philosophies of education that we recognize are: Essentialism, Perennialism, Progressivism, Social Reconstructionism, and Existentialism. I would most recognize my philosophy of education as Essentialism. Essentialism has been a dominant influence in American education since World War II. It focuses on core curriculum of traditional academic topics. I believe that the purpose of education is teachingRead MoreMy Philosophy Of Education And Education1038 Words   |  5 PagesMy Philosophy of Education When trying coming up with a personal philosophy of education, I had to ask myself what the purpose of education is. To me, the purpose of education is to teach students knowledge that is needed to make it through school and to succeed in the world after graduation. Anyone can go into teaching, but not every teacher can teach. Teachers go above and beyond to introduce methods, philosophies, and strategies to help their students learn, as well as, retain the informationRead MoreMy Philosophy of Education824 Words   |  4 Pages13 February 2011 My Philosophy of Education I believe that progressivism educational philosophy most closely matches my educational ideals. In my opinion based on the progressivism educational philosophy, the purpose of education is to enable students to learn useful knowledge that has meaning to them in the future. Thus, the most useful education for students is the skill of â€Å"learning how to learn†. When students understand the methodsRead MoreMy Education Philosophy 1511 Words   |  6 PagesPersonal Mission Statement Education is the imparting and acquiring of knowledge and skills through teaching and learning. As an educator, my personal mission statement is to master my subject area in order to serve as a role model for my students thereby producing students who thoroughly understand the subject matter, and who develop holistically. In order to achieve this goal I must have a set education philosophy with a strong Christian worldview. I must also have a general understanding of theRead MoreMy Philosophy Of Education1056 Words   |  5 PagesPhilosophy of Student Engagement My philosophy of education is that every child should receive high quality education that is inclusive, relevant and meaningful to their life. I am a firm believer of making pedagogy relatable to my students. My vision is driven by my personal experiences with the American school system. I was what is thought of as â€Å"A child at risk†. I am an immigrant, black, Muslim student. My life is transactional as I am a part of multiple marginalized groups. Most of my teachersRead MoreMy Philosophy Of Education And Education864 Words   |  4 PagesPhilosophy of Education Children are the future and their education is the key to our society’s success. When considering this, I realize I have an immense responsibility as an educator. The main focuses of my teaching are active learning, building character within students, and providing meaningful curriculum. I want to create a comfortable setting where every student feels safe to learn. In many ways, my philosophy agrees with the holistic approach to education. I feel this challenges the studentRead MoreMy Philosophy on Education814 Words   |  3 PagesMy Philosophy of Education I think when I made the decision to become a teacher I was not thinking the seriousness of this decision. 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Definitions, Types Characteristic of Drama free essay sample

Drama is the specific mode of fiction represented in performance. The term comes from a Greek word meaning action which is derived from the verb meaning to do or to act. Drama, in some form, is found in almost every society, primitive and civilized, and served a wide variety of functions in the community. It is a unique literary form because it is designed to be acted out on a stage before an audience, where actors take the roles of the characters, perform the indicated action, and utter the written dialogue. It is an enacted fiction primarily based on mimic action. That is, drama is something that one goes to see, and which is originally organized to be seen rather than to be read. Some specialists have defined drama as the most elegant expression of thought nearest to the truth, the most concrete form in which art can recreate human situations and relationships, and the most wide ranging of all the arts: it not only represent life, but it is also a way of seeing it. ? 2. Characteristics of Drama The major characteristics of drama are as follows: 2. 1. Characters: Characters are the people in the plays plot. Most plays have a round, major characters and flat, minor characters. The main characters are more important to a work and usually have a bigger part to play. Miranda from Shakespeares Tempest is an example of a main character. We learn much about her characteristics throughout the play, and she plays a big role in the reconciliation of the characters toward the end of the play. On the other hand, minor characters are less important. An example of a minor character is Marcellus from the play Hamlet, whose role is only to inform about Hamlets fathers ghost. We do not know nor do we need to know anything about his character or what happens to him thereafter. He just departs in peace. Lets take a look at the different characters. -Protagonist: The main character, usually the one who sets the action in motion. Example: Hamlet is the protagonist in the play Hamlet. -Antagonist: The character that stands as rival to the protagonist is called the antagonist. He is the villain. Example: Claudius is the major antagonist in the play Hamlet as he contrasts sharply with the main character in the play. -Foil: A character whose traits contrast with those of another character. Writers use foil to emphasize differences between two characters. For example, a handsome but dull character might be a foil for one who is unattractive but dynamic. By using foil, authors call attention to the strengths or weaknesses of a main character. Example: In Hamlet, the passionate and quick to action Laertes is a foil for the reflective Hamlet. -Confidant: A character that lends an ear and gives his input to usually the protagonist is a confidant. This type of character is most commonly a closest friend or trusted servant of the main character, who serves as a device for revealing the mind and intention of the main character. The confidants inputs are revealed only to the audience and not to the other characters in the play. Example: In Hamlet, Horatio is the confidant. -Stock characters: A stereotypical character who is not developed as an individual but as a collection of traits and mannerisms supposedly shared by all members of a group. These characters are easily recognized by audience due to their recurrent appearance and familiar roles. Example: A comic, a servant, a fool, a coward, a naive stepmother, and wicked witch. Each character is distinct from the other and must have their own peculiar personality, background, and beliefs. The mannerisms and use of language too may differ. The way the characters in the play are treated by the playwright is important to the outworking of the play. 2. 2. Dialogue: The words uttered by characters in a play forms a dialogue. The dialogue reveals the plot and characters of the play. What is spoken must be suitable to the situation and the role of the character. Things that are said on stage may take on greater worth or typical qualities than the same things said in everyday speech. Good dramatic speech involves a proper construction of words spoken in the appropriate context. It also involves saying what is not uninviting or what is obvious straight away. Good dialogue sheds light on the character speaking and the one spoken to, or spoken about, and aids in the furtherance of the plot. Dialogue may take various forms:- -An exchange between two or more characters. Titinius: These tidings will well comfort Cassius. Messala: Where did you leave him? Titinus: All disconsolate, With Pindarus his bondman, on this hill. Messala: Is not that he lies upon the ground? -Soliloquy: A character that is typically alone on stage delivering a long speech which is called a soliloquy. Emotions and innermost thoughts of the character are revealed in a soliloquy. [They exit. ANTONY remains. ] ANTONY. O, pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth, That I am meek and gentle with these butchers! Thou art the ruins of the noblest man That ever lived in the tide of times. -Aside: This is spoken by a character to another character or to the audience but is not heard by the other characters on stage. Asides reveal what a character is thinking or feeling. Caesar. Good friends, go in and taste some wine with me, And we (like friends) will straightway go together. Brutus (aside) . That every like is not the same, O Caesar, The heart of Brutus earns to think upon. [Exeunt. ] 2. 3. Plot: The plot is events that occur in a story sequentially. Normally the introduction of the characters in the beginning of the play gives the audience an idea about what the plot maybe. This information will enlighten the audience as to why characters behave the way they do and an incident maybe expected to surface that will create a problem for the main characters. As the action heightens, the characters encounter the problem and find themselves in trouble. The conflict in a plot may vary but, nevertheless, it forms the basis for the plot. The conflict leads the characters from one incident to another unfolding the plot and increasing the suspense and excitement of the reader or viewer. The turning point of the plot is called the climax when the outcome of the conflict takes place. The climax takes several forms. It may be a revelation of information or it may be a decision or an action. It is the point where suspense no longer exists. The plot is crucial for the success of a play. 2. 4. Setting: The setting and time in a play tell us where the story happened and the time it occurred. The setting is very important because what usually happens in the play is influenced by it. Visual components of a setting maybe limited to a painted tree, a bridge, or a hut, or it could be more elaborate. Shifts in time and space are often indicated by the actors through their speech and movements. In setting, the lighting plays an important role for it shows an illusion of time. Lighting also may be used to focus on an action or stress the importance of an event. Costumes and props too are involved in setting. Costumes are used to portray a characters profession, status, ethnicity, age and so on. Props are items used by actors on stage to create an atmosphere of the play. These can be simple writing materials, chairs and tables, flowers, thrones, blood-soaked clothes, blankets, and beds and so on. The effect created by the setting creates the mood for a theatrical spectacle. 2. 5. Stage directions: An audience is prompted to react by the movements or positions of the actors in a play. It can build up tension, trigger laughter, or shift the focus of the audience to a different part of the stage. To achieve this purpose, the writer communicates to the actors, director, and the rest of the crew in the play by means of stage directions. He does this by means of short phrases, usually printed in italics and enclosed in parentheses or brackets. These directions describe the appearance and actions of characters as well as the sets, costumes, props, sound effects, and lighting effects. Stage directions may also include the characters body language, facial expressions, and even the tone of voice. Comments or remarks about the surroundings and when a character enters or exits are also made in stage directions. Thus stage directions help us understand the feelings of the character and the mood of the story. 2. 6. Theme: The theme actually tells what the play means. Rather stating what happens in the story, the theme deals with the main idea within the story. Theme has been described as the soul of the drama. The theme can either be clearly stated through dialogue or action or can be inferred from the entire performance. The concluded plot and theme in drama should complement each other and should be synchronized to give a complete output. General themes are: i. conflictbetween two individuals. ii. conflict between man and a supernatural power. iii. conflict between the man and himself. 3. Types of Drama: Several genres exist within drama, each with their own storytelling methods, character types and dramatic approach. Drama is divided into the categories of tragedy, comedy, melodrama, and tragicomedy. Each of these forms can be further subdivided by style and content. 3. 1. Tragedy: In his Poetics, Aristotle defined Tragedy as: The imitation of an action that is serious and also, as having magnitude, complete in itself; in language with pleasurable accessories, each kind brought in separately in the parts of the work; in dramatic, not in a narrative form; with incidents arousing pity and fear, wherewith to accomplish its catharsis of such emotions. Generally speaking, tragedy dramatizes the conflict between the vital personal life and the restrictions of social life. It is a drama in which a character experience a disastrous end in his conflict with a powerful kind of force, and ultimately comes to comprehend the real value of his deeds. Tragedy is serious by nature in its theme and deals with profound problems. These profound problems are universal when applied to the human experience. In tragedy, we find a protagonist at the centre of the drama that is a great person, usually of upper class birth. He is a good man that can be admired, but he has a tragic flaw that will be the ultimate cause of his downfall. This tragic flaw can take on many characteristics but it is most often too much pride or excessive ambition. The protagonist always learns, usually too late, the nature of his flaw and his mistakes that have caused his downfall. He becomes self-aware and accepts the inevitability of his fate and takes full responsibility for his actions. We must have this element of inevitability in tragedy. That is, there must be a cause and effect relationship from the beginning through the middle to the end or final catastrophe. It must be logical in the conclusion of the necessary outcome. Tragedy will involve the audience in the action and creates tension and expectation. With the climax and final end the audience will have learned a lesson and will leave the theatre not depressed or sullen, but uplifted and enlightened. Most tragic heroes are males, with a few fantastic exceptions, such as Antigone, Juliet and Cleopatra. Women in tragic plays are, however, pathetic rather than tragic. They are somehow passive, seen as images of weakness rather than of exceptional strength. Among the most splendid tragedies are Antigone by Sophocles, Dr Faustus by Christopher Marlowe, Hamlet by William Shakespeare? etc. Tragedies can be separated into at least three subordinate categories or sub-genres identified and briefly characterized as follows: -Senecan Tragedy: A precursor of tragic drama was the Roman poet Seneca (4 BC 65 AD). His tragedies were recited rather than staged but they became a model for English playwrights entailing the five-act structure, a complex plot and an elevated style of dialogue. -Revenge Tragedy/ Tragedy of Blood: This type of tragedy represented a popular genre in the Elizabethan Age and made extensive use of certain elements of the Senecan tragedy, such as murder, revenge, mutilations and ghosts. Typical examples of this sub-genre are Christopher Marlowes The Jew of Malta, Shakespeares Titus Andronicus and Thomas Kyds The Spanish Tragedy. These plays were written in verse and, following Aristotelian Poetics, the main characters were of a high social rank (the higher they are, the lower they fall). Apart from dealing with violent subject matters, these plays conventionally made use of fake or real madness in some of the characters, dumb shows or play-with-the-play structures, that is, a play was performed within he play. Domestic/ Bourgeois Tragedy: In line with a changing social system where the middle class gained increasing importance and power, tragedies from the eighteenth century onward shifted their focus to protagonists from the middle or lower classes and were written in prose. The protagonist typically suffers a domestic disaster which is intended to arouse empathy rather than pity and fear in the audience. An example is George Lillos The London Merchant or, The History of George Barnwell . Modern tragedies such as Arthur Millers The Death of a salesman follow largely the new conventions set forth by the domestic tragedy ( common conflict, common characters, prose) and a number of contemporary plays have exchanged the tragic hero for an anti-hero, who does not display the dignity and courage of a traditional hero but is passive, pretty and ineffectual. Other dramas resuscitate elements of ancient tragedies such as the chorus and verse, e. g. , T. S. Eliots The Murder in the Cathedral. 3. 2. Comedy: Comedy is a broad category of dramatic works that are intended primarily to entertain and amuse an audience. Comedies take many different forms, but they all share three basic characteristics: 1. The values that are expressed and that typically present the conflict within the play are social and determined by the general opinion of society ( as opposed to universal and beyond the control of humankind, as in tragedy). 2. Characters in comedies are often defined primarily in terms of their society and their role within it. 3. Comedies often end with a restoration of social order in which one or more characters take a proper social role. Furthermore, Aristotle suggests that comic figures are mainly average to below average in terms of moral character, having in mind the wily servant or witty knave who was already a stock character of ancient comedy. He also suggests that only low or ignoble figures can strike us as ridiculous characters are often those who, although well-born, are merely pompous or self-important instead of truly noble. Similarly, the most sympathetic comic figures are frequently plucky underdogs, young men or women from humble or disadvantaged backgrounds who prove their real worth through various tests of character over the course of a story or play. Examples of famous comedies are: Shakespeares The Comedy of Errors and J. M. Barries What Every Woman Knows. Within the broad spectrum of dramatic comedy, the following types are the most frequently distinguished ones: -Romantic Comedy: A form of drama in which love is the main theme, and love leads to a happy ending. In this sub-genre, the primary distinguishing feature is a love plot in which two sympathetic and well-matched lovers are united or reconciled. In a typical romantic comedy, the two lover tend to be young, likeable, and apparently meant for each other, yet they are kept apart by some complicating circumstance until, surmounting all obstacles, they are finally wed. Perhaps the most popular of all romantic comedies are those of Shakespeare, such as: As You Like It, A Midsummer Nights Dream, and Twelfth Night. -Satirical Comedy: A form of comedy which dispraises, attacks, and ridicule the human vices, follies and defects. Satirical comedies resemble other types of comedy in that they trace the rising fortune of a central character. However, the central character here is likely to be cynical, foolish, or morally corrupt. Examples of Satirical comedies are: Ben Jonsons Volpe and The Alchemist. -Comedy of Manners: This sub-genre has for its main subjects and themes the relationships and intrigues of gentlemen and ladies living in a sophisticated society. Its comic effect depends on the wit and sparkle of the dialogue and on making ridiculous the violators of the social conventions. Best examples of this form are Shakespeares Loves Labours Lost and Much Ado about Nothing. -Farce: A form of comedy which is meant to provoke a simple amusement in the audience. The basic characteristics of farce are: 1. Exaggerated physical action. 2. Exaggeration of characters. 3. Absurd situations and improbable events. 4. Surprises in the form of unexpected appearances and disclosures. Farcical plots are often full of wild coincidences and seemingly endless complications. Farce is usually an episode in a more complex form of comedy. Examples are the farcical interludes in Shakespeares The Taming of the Shrew and The Merry Wifes of Windsor. -High Comedy: A type of comedy which evokes the intellectual mirth in the audience who are emotionally alienated from the action. This thoughtful laughter are caused by the follies, pretentiousness and incongruity in human behavior. It was introduced by George Meredith as a form of the comedy of manners. Examples of this form are Congreves Way of the World and Wildes A Woman of No Importance. -Low Comedy: A type of comedy that is used as a comic relief. It provokes a laughter from the belly rather than the brain. It usually includes slapstick, violent actions, and ribald jokes. It is considered to be a common component of farce. -Comedy of Humours: The comedy of humours refers to a sub-genre of dramatic comedy that focuses on a character or range of characters, each of whom two or more overriding traits or humours dominate their personality, desires and conduct. This comic technique may be found in Aristophanes, but the English playwrights Ben Jonson and George Chapman popularized the genre in the closing years of the sixteenth century. This form of comedy is exemplified in Jonsons Every Man in His Humour. 3. 3. Melodrama: Melodrama literally means a play with music that once upon the time, it was applied to the Opera in a broad sense. A play based on a romantic plot and developed sensationally with little regard for satisfying motivation and with an excessive appeal to the emotions of the audience. The object is to keep the audience thrilled by the awakening of strong feelings of pity or horror or joy. The first English melodrama is believed to have been Thomas Holocrofts A Tale of Mystary. 3. 4. Tragicomedy: Tragicomedies mingle conventions concerning the plot, character and subject matter derived from the both tragedy and comedy. Thus, characters of both high and low social rank can be mixed, or a seious conflict which is likely to end in disaster, suddenly reaches a happy ending because of some unforeseen circumstances. Plays with multiple plots which combine tragedy in one plot and comedy in the other are what attracted most of the best dramatists of the modern literature. Examples of tragicomedy are: Shakespeares The Merchant of Vince and John Fletchers The Faithful Shepherdess.